Introduction
Anti-Muslim sentiment in the United States has escalated over the past two decades, influenced by a variety of cultural, political, and transnational factors. Among these, the influence of Islamophobia—fear and hate for Islam—and Hindutva—a Hindu nationalist ideology originating in India—have emerged as significant factors in shaping anti-Muslim sentiment in the U.S., and within the U.S. diaspora.
This literature review critically examines academic peer-reviewed studies published over the last decade that explore Hindutva and Islamophobia and their intersections with anti-Muslim sentiment in America.
Islamophobia
Islamophobia, a form of anti-Muslim sentiment, has become a significant sociopolitical issue in the United States, especially in the post-9/11 era. Over the past few years, scholarly discourse has increasingly focused on understanding the manifestations, causes, and impacts of Islamophobia on various facets of American society.
This literature review critically evaluates recent peer-reviewed studies published between 2020 and 2024, focusing on how Islamophobia presents itself in the United States, the sociopolitical factors driving it, and its implications on public health, policy, and cultural integration.
Islamophobia in the USA
Islamophobia in the United States manifests across various domains, including social interactions, public policies, media representations, and educational environments. Scholars have noted that anti-Muslim sentiment affects not only individual Muslims but also entire communities (Samari, 2020; Esposito, 2020). It contributes to their marginalization and exclusion from social, economic, and political opportunities.
Discrimination in Social Interactions and Public Spaces
Muslims in the United States frequently face discrimination in public spaces, workplaces, and institutions. Budhwani and Hearld (2020) conducted a study on Muslim women in the U.S. and found that they are often the targets of verbal abuse, physical harassment, and discriminatory practices, particularly those who wear visible religious symbols such as hijabs. This visibility makes Muslim women more susceptible to Islamophobic attacks, which reinforces their marginalization and forces some women to alter their appearance or behavior in public spaces to avoid harassment.
More studies have framed Islamophobia as a public health issue (Lowe et al., 2019; Samari, 2020). These studies noted that Muslims who experience social discrimination are more likely to suffer from chronic stress, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The continuous exposure to microaggressions, hate speech, and exclusionary behavior has significant implications for the mental and physical well-being of Muslim individuals (De Nolf & d'Haenens, 2024).
Previous studies have shown that institutionalized Islamophobia presents a barrier to Muslims' participation in American society (Acim, 2019). According to Beydoun (2020), institutional Islamophobia occurs when government policies and practices systematically target Muslims. The "Muslim Ban," implemented under the Trump administration, is a prime example of such institutionalized discrimination. This executive order not only restricted travel from Muslim-majority countries but also sent a message that Muslims were unwelcome in the United States, further perpetuating the narrative that Muslims are inherently dangerous or "un-American."
Media Representations of Muslims as Threats
The media plays a central role in perpetuating Islamophobic stereotypes. The portrayal of Muslims in American media has long been associated with terrorism, violence, and extremism (Alzyoud, 2019; Kumar, 2021). This framing creates a moral panic that fuels anti-Muslim sentiment among the public. Muslims are often depicted as threats to national security, with stories focusing on radicalization and violence (Lajevardi, 2021) rather than on the everyday lives and contributions of Muslim Americans.
The negative media portrayal of Muslims contributes to what Lean (2020) describes as the "Islamophobia industry"—a network of political actors, commentators, and media organizations that profit from spreading fear about Muslims. This industry shapes public opinion, making anti-Muslim rhetoric more socially acceptable and reinforcing biases and prejudices.
More studies have shown that media representations of Muslims in the post-9/11 era have racialized Muslim identities (Selod, 2021; Tariq, 2020). Another study by Siddiqa and Qurat-ul-Ain (2021) about the representation of Muslims post-9/11 noted that Muslims, regardless of their actual ethnic backgrounds, are often perceived as a homogenous group linked to violence and terrorism. This racialization process exacerbates discrimination and exclusion in everyday interactions and institutional settings.
Islamophobia in Educational Settings
Research has reported a high prevalence of Islamophobia in educational environments in the United States (Abu Khalaf et al., 2023; Shaheen, 2024). Jackson (2021) conducted a case study on Islamophobia in American classrooms and found that Muslim students often face bullying, stereotyping, and exclusion from their peers. Teachers and administrators sometimes fail to intervene in cases of Islamophobic bullying, which normalizes anti-Muslim sentiment and reinforces the marginalization of Muslim students (Allali, 2024).
While most studies have shown the influence of peer interactions in promoting Islamophobia (Abu Khalaf et al., 2023; Farooqui & Kaushik, 2021), few have hinted at the possibility of curriculum content contributing to Islamophobia (Reagan, 2020). Abu Khalaf et al. (2023) highlighted how some educational and media materials perpetuate stereotypes about Muslims by presenting a narrow, often negative view of Islam and its followers. For example, discussions about terrorism in history or social studies classes often center on Muslim groups (Flensner, 2020), with little context provided about the political, historical, and social factors that contribute to extremism (Adam-Troian et al., 2021). This skewed representation shapes how students perceive Muslims and reinforces harmful stereotypes.
Surveillance and Policing of Muslim Communities
The disproportionate surveillance and policing of Muslim communities in the United States manifests Islamophobia. An increasing body of research describes how law enforcement agencies, including the FBI and local police departments, have targeted Muslim communities for surveillance programs under the guise of counterterrorism efforts (Al-Faham; Alimahomed-Wilson, 2019; Said, 2019). These programs disproportionately monitor Muslim-majority mosques, businesses, and community centers, creating an atmosphere of suspicion and fear.
Abbas (2021) argues that such surveillance practices perpetuate the idea that Muslims are inherently suspect and pose a security threat. This profiling not only violates the civil liberties of Muslim Americans but also damages trust between Muslim communities and law enforcement agencies. The fear of being watched or targeted by authorities discourages some Muslims from participating in civic life (Finlay & Hopkins, 2020), further marginalizing them.
Islamophobia in Legal and Political Arenas
American legal and political spheres are other conduits of Islamophobia where discriminatory policies and rhetoric have become more prevalent in recent years (Bilz, 2021). A study by Ramahi (2020) noted that laws and executive orders targeting Muslims have been justified under the guise of national security. Also, Elmasry (2021) noted that the Patriot Act passed after 9/11, expanded the government's surveillance powers and disproportionately targeted Muslim individuals and organizations. Moreover, Rifahie (2020) noted that the "Muslim Ban" further institutionalized anti-Muslim sentiment by restricting entry to the U.S. for individuals from several Muslim-majority countries.
Further research has shown that political rhetoric has normalized Islamophobia. Popal (2020) highlighted how politicians, particularly those on the far right, use Islamophobic language to appeal to their voter base. This rhetoric frames Muslims as a threat to American values and security (Bangstad & Helland, 2019), further entrenching anti-Muslim sentiment in public discourse.
Everyday Islamophobia and Microaggressions
More research indicates that Islamophobia manifests in daily microaggressions, which though subtle, often enhance discrimination or prejudice against Muslim individuals (Allen, 2023; Tirhi, 2019). These can include being subjected to intrusive questions about one's religion, receiving suspicious looks or comments, or being treated differently in professional or social settings (Amer & Ahmed, 2020).
Microaggressions, while seemingly minor, can accumulate over time and have serious psychological impacts. As Budhwani and Hearld (2020) noted, constant exposure to such acts of discrimination can lead to feelings of alienation, anxiety, and depression among Muslim individuals. These experiences contribute to the broader issue of social exclusion and hinder Muslims' ability to fully participate in American society.
These studies on manifestations reveal that Islamophobia in the United States is multifaceted in social interactions, media portrayals, educational settings, surveillance practices, and legal policies. These manifestations collectively contribute to the marginalization of Muslim communities and reinforce stereotypes that portray Muslims as threats to American society. Understanding these manifestations is crucial for developing effective strategies to combat Islamophobia and promote social inclusion.
Hindutva: A Transnational Phenomenon
Research studies indicate that Hindutva has evolved beyond India's borders, embedding itself within the political and cultural frameworks of the Indian diaspora in the United States (Nair & Nabeel, 2024). For instance, De Souza and Hussain (2023) analyzed the "Howdy Modi!" rally in Houston, Texas, and demonstrated how large-scale public events serve as platforms for the promotion of Hindutva ideology. Their study effectively shows how these events create an ethnonationalist identity that aligns with American right-wing politics. The authors use media analysis to illustrate the construction of a transnational Hindutva narrative.
Similarly, research has established that U.S.-based Hindutva organizations have adapted their strategies in response to criticisms of Hindu nationalism (Leidig, 2020). Moreover, Dutta et al. (2024) provided a nuanced discussion of how these groups use accusations of "Hinduphobia" to silence dissent.
On the other hand, Sundaram (2024) took a more theoretical approach, exploring the concept of "neocolonial futurism" to explain how Hindutva ideologies are being adapted to fit within an American context. These studies collectively demonstrate that Hindutva has become a global phenomenon, transcending national borders to influence political and cultural discourses in the United States. However, there is a need for more empirical research to validate these claims and assess the long-term impact of Hindutva on American politics and society.
The Role of Media and Political Discourse in Promoting Hindutva
The media plays an integral role in the dissemination of Hindutva ideology and in framing anti-Muslim narratives (Latif, 2025). Several scholars have emphasized that Hindutva's transnational influence has been amplified by digital platforms, traditional media outlets, and political discourse, especially in the United States (Dutta et al., 2024). Media not only spreads Hindutva's ideological messages but also shapes how the public perceives Muslim communities. It often portrays them as a monolithic group that threatens national and cultural values (Dutta et al., 2024).
Mediatization of Hindutva in Public Events
Williams and Ganguly (2021) argued that media plays a pivotal role in the internationalization of Hindutva through the mediatization of political events, such as the "Howdy Modi!" rally held in Houston, Texas, in 2019. The event, attended by then-President Donald Trump and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, was broadcast globally and presented as a symbol of a strong partnership between the United States and India (De Souza & Hussain, 2023). However, Williams and Ganguly contend that this rally was more than just a diplomatic event—it was a stage for advancing a transnational Hindutva agenda.
The study also highlights how Hindutva supporters in the U.S. use such events to align themselves with right-wing American political movements. The "Howdy Modi!" rally was portrayed in right-wing media outlets as a celebration of shared values between the two nations, such as nationalism, economic growth, and border security. However, these values were framed through an exclusionary lens, implicitly reinforcing anti-Muslim narratives.
Social Media as a Tool for Spreading Hindutva
Social media platforms have become essential tools for spreading Hindutva narratives and amplifying anti-Muslim sentiments. De and Tripathi (2024) explored how accusations of "Hinduphobia" are weaponized on social media to silence critics of Hindu nationalism. The authors demonstrate that U.S.-based Hindutva supporters have adopted digital strategies to frame any critique of Hindutva as an attack on Hinduism itself. As a result, it conflates religion with nationalism. This tactic effectively shuts down meaningful discussions about the dangers of Hindu nationalism while portraying critics as anti-Hindu bigots.
Weaponizing "Hinduphobia" in Media Discourse
The narrative of "Hinduphobia" has emerged as a powerful tool for Hindutva supporters to frame themselves as victims of religious persecution (Ghasiya et al., 2023). Sundaram (2022) and Tadepalli and Viswanath (2024) both highlighted how this narrative is strategically used to silence critiques of Hindu nationalism. The authors argued that Hindutva supporters shift the focus away from the real victims of Hindu nationalist policies; Muslims and other minorities (Anand, 2005). This victimization narrative is particularly effective in the U.S., where the discourse on religious freedom and minority rights is deeply entrenched in public consciousness.
Sundaram (2022) emphasizes that media outlets, particularly right-wing platforms, play a crucial role in amplifying these narratives. The study points out that these outlets often present Hindu nationalism as a legitimate cultural expression, overlooking the exclusionary and violent aspects of Hindutva. This selective framing contributes to the normalization of Hindutva ideologies in American public discourse.